The March 2023 issue of the CTC Sentinel has an article entitled “The Enduring Counterterrorism Challenge in Mozambique”. The article traces the history of a growing insurgency in the Cabo Delgada Province in northern Mozambique. The world took notice when the group launched an attack in March 2021 against a coastal town that was considered secure. The capture of the town threatened a huge liquified natural gas project.

International and regional military and police forces, beginning in the spring of 2021, began deploying to the country to assist in the counterinsurgency effort against the jihadi group. Among these advisory and training efforts was the introduction of U.S. Special Forces in Mozambique.

After a period of reduced activity in the last part of 2021 and early 2022 the jihadi group increased its operations and moved into new areas of the northern province. The insurgents revised their strategic approach to targets and civilians. It began attempts at winning the hearts and minds of the population. The use of the media by both the insurgents and the government has increased in frequency and in importance.

The long term outlook for the security situation in Mozambique will not be affected by the introduction of security force assistance alone. A comprehensive approach to the insurgency has to include addressing of unresolved grievances, providing security to not just economic zones but areas where the insurgents are active, and improved coordination and communication among the various security entities (domestic and foreign),

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“The Enduring Counterterrorism Challenge in Mozambique”, CTC Sentinel, Combating Terrorism Center at West Point, March 23, 2023, pages 1-6.
https://ctc.westpoint.edu/the-enduring-counterterrorism-challenge-in-mozambique/

Author. Emilia Columbo is a Senior Associate with the Center for Strategic and International Studies’ Africa Program. She is a former senior intelligence analyst at the Central Intelligence Agency.

Map. Source Central Intelligence Agency.

Related Article. In early 2021 the United States deployed Green Berets in response to the growth of insurgent activity in northern Mozambique. Read more on this in “US SF Training Mozambique Military in Fight Against Insurgents”, SOF News, March 24, 2021.

By Fiona G. Holter, USAICoE Staff Historian, October 13, 2022.

On 14 October 1993, CWO3 Michael Durant, a pilot with the 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment (SOAR), was released by Somali insurgents after being held captive for eleven days following the crash of his MH-60L Blackhawk. The Blackhawk, Super 64, was the second helicopter shot down in the Battle of Mogadishu after a high-risk raid by Task Force (TF) Ranger to capture two high value, Somali National Alliance (SNA) assets.

After successfully completing a high-risk raid to capture high-value SNA assets in the Habr Gedir sector of Mogadishu on 3 October, TF Ranger—a team of Army Special Operations Forces (SOF) and support elements—was faced with a new mission after enemy insurgents shot down Super 61, a Blackhawk piloted by CWO4 Clifton “Elvis” Wolcott and CWO3 Donovan “Bull” Briley, who were providing air support to the mission. As TF Ranger saw the helicopter crash, they diverted their resources to secure the crash site and rescue the crew.

As ground troops raced clan militias to the Super 61 crash site, in what became a baited ambush, Super 64, a second Blackhawk piloted by CWO3 Durant was shot down approximately twelve minutes later. A Quick Reaction Force (QRF) comprised of infantry from 2d Battalion, 14th Infantry and 1st Battalion, 87th Infantry were deployed as combat support as well as search and rescue. Supported by Pakistani tanks and Malaysian armored personnel carriers, the QRF teams eventually secured the Super 61 crash site, retrieved the dead and wounded, and provided support to elements of TF Ranger as they redeployed to safety. However, by the time they reached the Super 64 crash site, the crew was missing.

In the aftermath of the Battle of Mogadishu, casualties totaled thirteen dead, eighty-two wounded, and six missing. Lt. Col. (later Col.) James T. Faust, the Joint Special Operations Command (JSOC) J-2 Chief of Intelligence Operations, TF Ranger, explained that with six missing soldiers, TF Ranger quickly shifted their mission. He said, “everything we built for TF Ranger intelligence focused on Aideed and his infrastructure;” now their mission was to build a new collection plan, combining the efforts of human and signal intelligence and surveillance systems to find the soldiers missing in action.

Within a couple of days, HUMINT sources reported Somali insurgents were dragging dead American soldiers through the streets, which was later confirmed by CNN footage. They also recovered a soldier whose body was left at a roadblock within the city. Eventually, five of the missing were located and declared dead; however, the search for Durant continued.

Maj. Gen. (then Capt.) Robert Walters, the Assistant S-2, 1st Battalion, 160th SOAR, which deployed with TF Ranger, explained that after other search methods failed, the S-2 shop reached out to Durant’s wife for a list of his favorite songs, “divided the city into quadrants and then put speakers on [their] helicopters and played his favorite song, a different one in each of the four quadrants.” He explained their hope was Durant would hear the song and mention it in a Red Cross message, helping them narrow down the search. Unfortunately, none of Durant’s messages were mailed but, on 14 October 1993, after being held captive for eleven days, he was released to the International Committee of the Red Cross.

The events of 3-4 October 1993 prompted withdrawal of U.S. forces from Somalia. According to CWO4 (Retired) Gregory Peterson, a senior civilian analyst at JSOC at the time of the raid, “While the common legacy of TF Ranger is the casualties associated with the October raid, that operation survives today as [a] hallmark of surgical Special Operations units.”

Overall, it was a costly learning experience and one that also demonstrated the courage of SOF Soldiers who earned two Medals of Honor. In 2021, the Army and Congress approved upgrades for sixty awards for valor in the Battle of Mogadishu, including fifty-eight new Silver Stars and two Distinguished Flying Crosses.

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This story by Fiona G. Holter was first published on October 12, 2022 by the U.S. Army Intelligence Center of Excellence and posted by the Defense Visual Information Distribution System. DVIDS content is in the public domain.

Photo: Crew of Super 64, September 1993. From left: Winn Mahuron, Tommy Field, Bill Cleveland, Ray Frank, and Mike Durant. The crew served with TF Ranger in Operation Gothic Serpent in Somalia. Photo by Maj. Robin Cox.

Read more about “Operation Gothic Serpent” and the Battle of Mogadishu, SOF News, July 18, 2020.

African Lion is U.S. Africa Command’s largest annual exercise. This year’s event was hosted by Morocco, Tunisia, and Senegal from June 7-18, 2021. More than 7,000 participants from nine nations trained together with a focus on enhancing readiness for U.S. and partner nation forces. African Lion 2021 is multi-domain, multi-component, and multinational exercise, which employs a full array of mission capabilities with the goal to strengthen interoperability among participants.

In addition to the participating nations contributing troops and units, 20 nations sent international observers to the exercise. The training events included humanitarian assistance, command and control, air operations, medical readiness, maritime, and joint forcible entry. For the U.S. units African Lion 2021 provided an opportunity to mobilize, deploy, conduct operations, and then redeploy.

History of African Lion. The exercise was first conducted in 2002 – with the participation of the U.S. Marines and Royal Moroccan Armed Forces. U.S. Africa Command increased its involvement in the exercise with the inclusion of the U.S. Army Southern European Task Force, Africa based in Vicenza, Italy. African Lion 2021 is the 17th iteration of the exercise. SETF-A assumed lead responsibility of exercise African Lion in 2019 from the U.S. Marine Corps. The exercise is an annual event but was cancelled in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic.

A Big Exercise for a Big Continent. African Lion 2021 incorporated units and equipment from a variety of countries and services. Africa is a huge continent with a population that is expected to exceed two billion in three more decades. In this new era of ‘great power competition’ Africa has emerged as a zone of competition for the United States, Russia, and China. In addition, violent extremist groups such as the Islamic State, Al Qaeda, Boko Harem, and other affiliate jihadist organizations have been making headway in solidifying their hold on parts of Africa. Due to the current tension between Madrid and Rabat over the Morocco claims on the Western Sahara Spain decided not to participate in the African Lion 2021 exercise.

Scope of the Exercise. Some of the principal United States players included Africa Command and the U.S. Army Southern European Task Force – Africa. General Stephen Townsend commands AFRICOM and Maj. Gen. Andrew Rohling commands SETF-A. The Joint Chiefs of Staff-sponsored exercise was scheduled and supported by AFRICOM. SETF-A established the exercise’s combined joint task force headquarters. It integrated U.S. Africa Command components and international partners. Almost 4,000 U.S. service members took part alongside other international forces.

Participating Nations. African nations taking part in the exercise included Morocco, Senegal, and Tunisia. British paratroopers from the 16th Air Assault Brigade based in Colchester, United Kingdom (and an element of the U.S. 173rd Airborne Brigade) conducted a joint forcible entry airborne assault onto a drop zone in Grier Labouie, Morocco. Other NATO nations took part as well to include Morocco, Tunisia, Senegal, Brazil, Canada, Netherlands, Italy, and others. Multinational observers came from the African Union, Chad, Denmark, Djibouti, Egypt, Gabon, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Jordan, Kenya, Malta, Niger, Nigeria, Norway, Poland, Qatar, and the UAE.

Participating US Units. US naval, air, and ground forces took part in this exercise. A US naval contingent conducted maneuvers that included a naval gunfire exercise and multiple sea-based operations involving U.S. and Moroccan vessels. The various U.S. ground units conducted a variety of events including command post exercises and small unit tactical training.

Photo: Moroccan Special Forces alongside U.S. Army Special Forces Soldiers assigned to the 19th Special Forces Group (Airborne), Utah Army National Guard fast rope from a MH-47 Chinook of the 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment onto a rooftop and clear a building during a high value target training exercise at Tifnit, Morocco on June 17, 2021. (Photo by Sgt. James Garvin, 79th Theater Sustainment Command)

Air Operations. There were about 46 supporting aircraft, to include 21 mission aircraft. U.S. air units included F-16 Fighting Falcons, C-130J Super Hercules, MH-47 Chinooks, and KC-135 Stratotanker aircraft. The Moroccan Air Force took part in the air maneuvers as well. The U.S. Air Mobility Command deployed two airfield survey teams from the 621st Contingency Response Wing during April 2021 to conduct airfield surveys in preparation for the exercise. The F-16s conducted Agile Combat Employment (ACE) events during the exercise working alongside Moroccan fighters. C-130Js provided critical support by transporting weapons, support equipment, and essential personnel to and around the exercise region. In addition the propeller-driven transports conducted airdrops, airlift, and aeromedical evacuation operations. The KC-135s provided aerial refueling for the combined fighter operations throughout the exercise – to include the Moroccan fighters. MH-47s from the 160th SOAR conducted operations to include fast roping SOF operators onto complexes with high value targets. USAF Joint Terminal Attack Control (JTACs) Airmen supported the air operations and worked with their Moroccan counterparts.

Photo: Royal Moroccan Navy Commando. (Photo by Sgt. Jacob Jesperson, U.S. Army, June 14, 2021).

SOF Participants. A number of special operations forces units took part in the exercise including 19th Special Forces Group, 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment, Royal Moroccan Army paratroopers, and Royal Navy Commandos. The exercise strengthens the interoperability among SOF participants.

Georgia National Guard. The Georgia National Guard played a big role in this years exercise. More than 700 soldiers from the Georgian Army National Guard were present for the exercise – primarily from the 648th Maneuver Enhancement Brigade and the 48th IBCT. The Georgians contributed an infantry and artillery battalion. In total, Georgia sent over 100 vehicles and nine M109A6 Paladin howitzers. They conducted situational training exercise lanes, field training exercises, indirect fire gunnery table qualification, and participated in a combined and joint live-fire exercise.

Photo: U.S. Army Special Forces Soldiers assigned to 19th Special Forces Group, Utah Army National Guard conduct combined training with Royal Moroccan Army Soldiers during African Lion 2021 in Tifnit, Morocco June 8, 2021. (Photo courtesy of Southern European Task Force Africa)

Utah National Guard and SPP. Utah maintains relations with Morocco through the State Partnership Program (SPP). In 2004, the United States designated Morocco as major non-NATO ally. The Utah National Guard contingent included members of the 19th Special Forces Group and Air National Guard unit members. The Utah guardsmen were training in and around the Moroccan cities of Tifnit, Tantan, and Tafraoute. Through the SPP members of the National Guard can maintain relationships with partner country officials and military members for decades. This helps build long-term alliances that can respond to future challenges. Tunisia and Senegal are also SPP nations. There are 15 African nations in the SPP.

19th SFG. An element of the 19th Special Forces Group, Utah National Guard participated in the training event. Alongside special operations counterparts from other nations they conducted training activities to include airborne operations, fast roping, range firing, and tactical exercises.

Photo: A member of the 19th Special Forces Group conducts a Jumpmaster Personnel Inspection (JMPI) of a paratrooper in preparation for an Airborne Operation in Ben Guerir Airbase, Morocco, on June 10, 2021. (U.S. Army photo by SPC. Brendan Nunez)

Humanitarian Operations. Several different services were provided to Moroccan civilians including general medicine, dental, and optometry. Utah’s 151st Expeditionary Medical Group conducted medical training with Moroccan medical professionals as well as providing health services to local citizens. A temporary field hospital was set up to provide the services and conduct the humanitarian civic assistance (HCA). The hospital provided general medical care, level 2 surgical and dental care, as well as other medical specialties.

Photo: Members of the Utah Air National Guard provided medical care to patients at a surgical field hospital during African Lion 2021. (Photo by Colton Elliott June 7, 2021)

COVID Precautions. Most U.S. military exercises were cancelled or significantly downsized during 2020. This included the cancellation of African Lion 2020. This year U.S. service members were pre-screened and tested prior to deployment. Some units conduced a two-week self-quarantine as well. Once deployed to the exercise region many units conducted another COVID-19 test for their personnel. In addition, many member who deployed were vaccinated for COVID-19. Standard safety measures were employed where feasible to include physical distancing, face coverings, and much handwashing.

The African Lion 2021 exercise provided the opportunity for nations to employ a full array of mission capabilities that will strengthen interoperability among partner nations and enhance the ability of US and other partner nation forces to operate in the African theater of operations. The exercise also provided an example of the United States’ long-term commitment to Africa and the strategic importance of the continent to the United States.

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African Lion 2021 – Culminating Video. A quick video that highlights some of the training activities of the exercise. Video by Sgt. James Garvin, Southern European Task Force Africa, June 18, 2021, 2 minutes.
https://www.dvidshub.net/video/803004/african-lion-2021-culminating-video

African Lion 21 Wrap Up Video. U.S. Army soldiers explain their role in the exercise and the importance of the exercise. Video by Sgt. Jeron Walker, Georgia National Guard, June 28, 2021, 3 minutes.
https://www.dvidshub.net/video/805193/african-lion-21-wrap-up-video

U.S. Air Force Combat Aviation Advisors assigned to Air Force Special Operations Command conducted a three-month long training event with members of the Kenyan Air Force. This video depicts scenes from a culmination exercise that showcases the wide range of capabilities of the C-145A Combat Coyote aircraft. This light mobility aircraft is used for a variety of missions to include airdrop of supplies, medical evacuation, combat search and rescue, humanitarian assistance, disaster relief operations, and transport of personnel and equipment. The aircraft was originally procured in 2009 to conduct non-standard aviation special air mobility missions. In 2010, AFSOC selected the C-145A to be operated primarily by CAAs.

U.S. Air Force video by Senior Airman Victoria Hadden, May 29, 2021, 3 minutes. Originally published by the Defense Visual Information Distribution System.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y7diCEtkEUc

On May 27, 1997 rebel forces and military officers conducted a coup to overthrow the government of Sierra Leone. Foreigners in the country were at risk during this crisis and needed to be evacuated. A few months prior to the coup a U.S. Army Special Forces detachment had deployed in Sierra Leone for a joint training exercise. This detachment would take a leading role in helping to secure the U.S. embassy and residential compounds, provide intelligence to U.S. forces, identify helicopter landing zones, and assist in the overall conduct of the non-combatant evacuation operation (NEO).

The NEO was conducted by Joint Task Force Noble Obelisk established May 27, 1997 – consisting of the USS Kearsarge (LHD-3), the 22nd Marine Expeditionary Unit (MEU), and the Special Forces detachment. The Kearsarge arrived on station off the coast of Freetown on May 28, 1997. The JTF conducted a series of three evacuations over six days that included transport of the evacuees by Marine helicopter to the Kearsarge and then disembarkation off the Kearsarge in Conakry, Guinea. US forces evacuated over 2,500 people – about 450 of the evacuees were American citizens and the rest third-country nationals. Operation Noble Obelisk was officially disestablished on June 6, 1997.

A Special Forces detachment from the 3rd Special Forces Group was deployed in April 1997 to develop a training plan in the development of a newly established Sierra Leone Army. The deployment was a Joint-Combined Exchange Training (JCET) rotation. The mission was to train a 300-man light infantry battalion – known as the RSLMF 1st Battalion over a three-month period. In late May SFODA 334 would find itself in the middle of a crisis and very involved in assisting in the evacuation of American and foreign citizens.

On the morning of 25 May the SF detachment learned of a coup taking place in the capital. The SF team quickly established communications with its company leadership (forward-deployed in Mali) and Special Operations Command Europe (SOCEUR) of the situation. After having established a defensive posture at its training camp in Benguema the team sent out elements to search for suitable airfields, landing zones, and sites of naval landing craft. The next day the team moved to the embassy compound in Freetown. At that location they coordinated with Nigerian and other military units for security for U.S. citizens and the embassy and conducted a reconnaissance of helicopter landing zones . As advanced members of the MEU arrived the ODA escorted them to the evacuation sites and landing zones. Once the evacuation began the detachment organized convoys to the landing zones and coordinated for security during the NEO process.

During the NEO event the SF team played an important role in all aspects of the operation. The training of Special Forces detachments, cultural orientation, and relationships with embassies in their regional areas of operation make them ideally suited to assist in non-combatant evacuation operations. The actions of SFODA 334 reflect the adaptability, flexibility, and responsiveness of Special Forces units in the midst of an emerging crisis.

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Photo: Evacuees from Freetown, Sierra Leone, are directed from a CH-53 Sea Stallion helicopter across the flight deck of the USS Kearsarge during Operation Noble Obelisk. Over 2,500 people from 40 different countries were evacuated. Photo by Petty Officer 2nd Class Wes Cheney, U.S. Navy, May 30, 1997.

References:

The Role of United States Army Special Forces in Operation Nobel Obelisk, by Francis M. Beaudette, MAJ, USA, CGSC, Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, 2001, PDF, 112 pages.
https://www.soc.mil/SWCS/DOTDP/AY_2004-/Beaudette,%20F%202001.pdf

Operation Noble Obelisk: An Examination of Unity of Effort, by William M. Kennedy, LCDR, CHC, USN, Naval War College, Newport, RI, 2001, PDF, 25 pages.
https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA389782.pdf

Operation Noble Obelisk, Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Noble_Obelisk

Army Special Operations Forces Noncombatant Evacuation Operations, FM 3-05.131, November 2009.

Noncombatant Evacuation Operations, Joint Publication 3-68, November 2015.
https://www.jcs.mil/Portals/36/Documents/Doctrine/pubs/jp3_68pa.pdf

Podcast – Proxies and American Strategy in Africa. The U.S. withdrawal from Somalia of 700 military personnel has put the U.S. military involvement in Africa back in the news. This podcast explores what US forces are doing when they’re deployed in countries across Africa. In many cases these US forces (SOF and conventional) are working with local partner forces. – which helps the United States to retain a degree of influence and situational awareness in the country. Two guests featured in this podcast provide an examination of proxy warfare in Africa.

Retired Maj. Gen. Marcus Hicks was the former commander of Special Operations Command Africa from 2017 to 2019. In that role he was responsible for all Special Operations Forces conducting counterinsurgency operations and foreign internal defense (FID) across the continent of Africa. Hicks is a command pilot with more than 3,000 flying hours in AC-130H Spectre and AC-130U Spooky aircraft. He has commanded units within the special operations community and conventional Air Force at all levels.

Dr. Eli Berman is the co-editor of the book Proxy Wars: Suppressing Violence through Local Agents. He is a professor at the University of California San Diego and has served as the Research Director for International Security Studies at the University of California Institute on Global Conflict and Cooperation.

Irregular Warfare Podcast, December 23, 2020, 56 mins.
https://mwi.usma.edu/mwi-podcast-proxies-and-american-strategy-in-africa/

By Paul D. LeFavor.

Operation Restore Hope was a US initiative conducted under the umbrella of the United Nations-sanctioned multinational force which operated in Somalia between December 1992 and March 1995. The operation was tasked with carrying out United Nations Security Council Resolution 794: to create a protected environment for conducting humanitarian operations in the southern half of Somalia. Throughout Operation Restore Hope, ODAs from 5th and 10th SF Groups conducted a multitude of stability operations.

During UNOSOM II, the second phase of the UN mission in Somalia, General Aidid, a renegade Somali warlord, had killed and injured several soldiers using improvised bombs. In response, President Clinton approved the proposal to deploy a special task force, TF Ranger, composed of 400 U.S. Army Rangers and 1st SFOD-Delta commandos. Operation Gothic Serpent, conducted from August to October 1993, was launched with the primary mission of capturing warlord Mohamed Farrah Aidid.

On the afternoon of 3 October 1993, informed that two leaders of Aidid’s clan were at a residence in central Mogadishu, TF Ranger sent 19 aircraft, 12 vehicles, and 160 men to kill or capture them. The two Somali leaders were quickly captured, however armed militiamen and civilians converged on the target area from all over the city. When two MH-60 Black Hawk helicopters were shot down, ground forces converged to their locations to recover the personnel. The ensuing battle to get to the downed helicopters turned out to be the most intensive close combat the U.S. troops had engaged in since the Vietnam War.

During the raid, MSG Gary Gordon and SFC Randall Shughart, a sniper/observer team with Task Force Ranger, provided precision and suppressive fire from helicopters above the two helicopter crash sites. Learning that no ground forces were available to rescue one of the downed aircrews and aware that a growing number of enemy were closing in on the site, Gordon and Shughart volunteered to be inserted to protect their critically wounded comrades. After their third request they were inserted one hundred meters south of the downed chopper. Armed with only their personal weapons, the two commandos fought their way to the downed fliers through intense small arms fire, a maze of shanties and shacks, and the enemy converging on the site.

After Gordon and Shughart pulled the wounded from the wreckage, they established a perimeter, put themselves in the most dangerous position, and fought off a series of attacks. The two commandos continued to protect their comrades until they had depleted their ammunition and were themselves fatally wounded. Their actions saved the life of CW3 Michael Durant. Gary Gordon and Randall Shughart were posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor for their valiant efforts.

In the end, 18 U.S. troops on the rescue convoy were killed, while estimates of Somali fatalities are around 1,000 militiamen killed during the battle. Although the mission’s objective of capturing Aidid’s associates was accomplished, on October 7 in a nationwide television address, President Clinton effectively ended the US proactive policy in Somalia and called for the withdrawal of all US forces no later than March 31, 1994.

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This article is an excerpt from US Army Small Unit Tactics Handbook, by Paul D. LeFavor, 2015, pages 104-105. Re-posted with permission from Blacksmith Publishing, Fayetteville, NC. US Army Small Unit Tactics Handbook is available at Amazon.com. Paul D. LeFavor is a retired Special Forces Master Sergeant who served in several overseas conflicts and continues to provide training to special operations forces as a contractor. Image derived from CIA maps and a video by the Department of Veterans Affairs.

A recent report published by the Joint Special Operations University (JSOU) provides insights into the ways that special operations forces can assist indigenous governance structures to halt or reverse the growth of violent extremist organizations (VEOs).

The authors of the report argue that operating in the human domain requires a “. . . deep appreciation of local worldviews, modes and patterns of life, and organic institutional arrangements that make them viable”. SOF is adept at working with government leaders at the national and sub-national level; however, SOF – in many instances – is not knowledgeable about informal governance structures that can assist in the fight against VEOs.

The country faces several home-based and foreign-based terrorist groups to include Ansarul Islam, Islamic State of Iraq and ash-sham networks in the Greater Sahara (ISGS), al-Mulathamun Battalion, and the al-Qa’ida-affiliated Jama’at Nusrat al-Islam wal-Muslimin (JNIM). More than 500 militant attacks in the past four years have killed hundreds of people. Burkina Faso had over 500,000 internally displaced persons in 2019. Terrorist attacks have taken place in the country’s capital as well as in rural areas.

Burkina Faso has augmented the size of its special terrorism detachment – Groupement des Forces Anti-Terroristes (GFAT). It has also jointed the G5 Sahel Joint Force to fight terrorism and criminal trafficking groups with its regional neighbors (Chad, Mali, Mauritania, and Niger). In addition, it participates in the annual Flintlock exercise conducted by Special Operations Command – Africa (SOCAfrica).

The authors use Burkina Faso as an example of how SOF can support a country in its counterterrorism fight against VEOs. Local political legitimacy can be enhanced – and the influence of VEOs diminished – by working with indigenous, informal governance structures.

Report Contents:

• Chapter 1 – Governance Provides in Burkina Faso
• Chapter 2 – Islamic VEOs in Burkina Faso
• Chapter 3 – Governance Environment
• Chapter 4 – Violence and Security in Burkina Faso
• Conclusion
• Survey Methodology
• Acronyms and Endnotes

Informal Governance as a Force Multiplier in Counterterrorism: Evidence for Burkina Faso, by Margaret H. Ariotti and Kevin S. Fridy, JSOU Report 20-3, JSOU Press, July 2020, 110 pages, PDF.
https://jsou.libguides.com/ld.php?content_id=55754342

Image: Derived from photo on back cover of the JSOU report and CIA map of Burkina Faso.

Since 9/11 the United States has significantly scaled up its counterterrorism (CT) activities in Africa. The U.S. has conducted unilateral CT operations as well as extensive training for African partner forces involved in the CT fight. Despite this long counterterrorism campaign the growth of jihadist groups continues in Somalia, north Africa, and west Africa. Many of the violent extremist organizations (VEOs) are aligned with either al-Qa’ida or the Islamic State.

PSI and TSCTI. In 2002 the U.S. established its Pan Sahel Initiative (PSI) aimed to improve the intelligence and border security capability of some Sahelian countries. [1] Later, in 2005, a much larger program labeled the Trans-Saharan Counter Terrorism Initiative (TSCTI) involved economic, political, diplomatic, and military components. The military component of TSCTI was Operation Enduring Freedom – Trans Sahara. In 2002 the U.S. established a presence at Camp Lemonier in Djibouti – initially basing SOF elements to respond to counterterrorism events in the region. The base has grown and currently houses 3,000 troops that conduct operations throughout the Horn of Africa, east Africa, and beyond.

AFRICOM and SOCAFRICA. An annual special operations exercise (FLINTLOCK) was instituted in 2005 supported by SOCEUR and later by SOCAFRICA involving several nations in the region. In 2007 the U.S. established Africa Command (AFRICOM). For many years the United States has been deploying forces to Africa to conduct counterterrorism (CT) operations and to advise, assist, train, and accompany security forces of partner nations conducting CT operations.

Training Teams. U.S. Special Forces, MARSOC, other units have been providing training and assistance to countries in the Sahel, Lake Chad, and Horn of Africa regions. Over time many of these operations became known to the public. However some of these CT operations were ‘under the radar’. Other missions barely register in the press – such as the operation against the Lord’s Resistance Army in central Africa. A few became well-known due to unfavorable events.

Costly Operations. One example of an event that caught Americans by surprise includes the U.S. military involvement in Niger where four members of the 3rd Special Forces Group were killed in an ambush in October 2017. Another operation is the al Shabaab raid on Camp Simba at the Manda Bay Airfield where three Americans died in January 2020.

Support to Partners. In addition to ‘boots on the ground’ the United States has provided logistical and intelligence support to African and European nations in the CT fight – especially in west Africa. This includes three critical components to the CT campaign: in-flight refueling of European aircraft, airlift of European and African soldiers and vehicles, and all sources of U.S. intelligence. AFRICOMs efforts in CT in Africa is complemented by those of the U.S. State Department. [2]

Spotty Progress. There have been some successes in the counterterrorism fight in Africa but there have also been cases where progress has been very slow. Long running conflicts are in progress in Somalia, Libya, and the Sahel region of Africa and they are unlikely to end soon. The United States has had a presence in all of these areas – employing conventional and special operations forces for several years in these conflicts. However, it appears that insecurity and instability has gotten worse over the past decade despite efforts by the United States and other international actors.

Somalia

Somalia has been a failed state for many decades. Al-Shabaab militants have contributed to this state of insecurity and instability in Somalia. The group holds large areas of the rural countryside and conducts frequent attacks in the cities of Somalia. The al-Qaeda affiliated insurgent / terrorist group has been intent on toppling the UN-backed federal government. In addition to establishing a caliphate in Somalia, Al Shabaab has a stated desire to attack the U.S. homeland. The Defense Intelligence Agency has assessed that the threat from al Shabaab and ISIS-Somalia remains high. The strength of al Shabaab is estimated to be between 5,000 to 7,000. ISIS-Somalia is much smaller, estimated at 100 to 300 fighters.

In 2019 the U.S. conducted over 110 airstrikes in Central and Southern Somalia killing over 800 militants. U.S. military personnel (about 700) have been providing advise, assistance, and accompanying Somalia forces and partner nations of the African Union Mission in Somalia (AMISOM). [3] SOF teams have been training select Somali units to include the Danab Advance Infantry Brigade.

Lake Chad Basin

The Boko Harem group has had a long presence in the Lake Chad Basin area of Africa. It’s area of operations straddles the border of Nigeria, Chad, Cameroon, and Niger. ISIS-West Africa also operates in this region. The VEOs in the Lake Chad Basin area have not been significantly degraded. Other jihadist groups aligned with Middle Eastern organizations threaten to expand as well.

The VEOs are aided by the corruption and ineffectiveness of the regional governments – notably the Nigerian government. The Nigerian Army has not been able to defend remote locations and is now consolidating its forces onto larger more defendable bases yielding much of the Nigerian northeast countryside to Boko Harem. The US posture in this region has gone from a “degrade” strategy to one of “containment”.

Sahel Region

Islamist militants have been a source of insecurity in the Sahel area of Africa. The militants, aligned with al Qaeda, are fighting for control of the land along Niger’s western border with Mali and in other Sahel nations. The militants operate with basic weapons, pickup trucks, and motorcycles and are very mobile. They have been increasingly active the last several months in Burkina Faso, Mali, and Niger. The VEOs in the Sahel region have not been degraded nor contained. There are indications that the VEOs will continue to expand their operational area. The most active and effective VEO in this region is Jama’at Nusrat al Islam wal-Muslimin (JNIM).

The U.S. currently has Special Forces teams operating in the region conducting a train, advise, and assist mission. An airfield was built and is now operational in Agadez, Niger to assist the regional government forces in providing security for its threatened areas. The airfield also functions as a U.S. drone base – beginning ISR operations in November 2019. However, there have been rumors that, having just completed the base, the U.S. may phase out or scale down operations at Air Base 201.

Libya

From 2014 to 2016 the Islamic State had a big presence in Libya but has since drifted south into the desert. The current civil war in Libya makes it difficult to truly assess the Islamic State in Libya. ISIS-Libya and al Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) have been a bit quiet in north Africa the last part of 2019.

Past and current CT efforts by the United States in Libya include drone strikes against ISIS leadership. A small contingent of U.S. SOF was withdrawn from Libya in April 2019 due to the unpredictable security environment. The presence of Russian mercenary forces impede U.S. counterterrorism operations in Libya. [4] Complicating the Libyan security environment has been the introduction of proxy forces from Syria, Sudan, and Chad.

U.S. Partners in Africa

France – the Sahel Lead. The United States is fortunate to have good international partners to work in the CT effort in Africa. The French have been in the lead for several years in the Sahel region. They currently have about 4,500 troops in this area of Africa supporting Operation Barkhane which started in 2014. In addition, France has (as of 2020) established a special operations task force – Operation Takuba will have several European countries participating.

G5 Sahel Joint Force. The five nations of Burkina Faso, Mali, Niger, Chad, and Mauritania are currently trying to secure the region and its borders but it is facing some challenges. The G5 Sahel, established in 2017, remains under resourced and lacks sufficient training. The French play a major role in assisting the G5 Sahel force. The U.S. provides a limited footprint of training and equipping activities to the G5 Sahel.

MINUSMA. The United Nations is assisting in the security effort. The United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali is engaged in an important but difficult peacekeeping mission. It is assisted by the United States and other international partners.

AMISON. The countries of Kenya, Ethiopia, Uganda, and others have been contributing troops for a number of years to this joint mission in Somalia. The troops of the African Union Mission in Somalia has begun its withdrawal. By 2021 the AMISON mission in Somalia should be finished; although the security situation in Somalia is unlikely to significantly improve by then.

Key African Allies. There are some key African nations who are important partners – including Kenya, Niger and others. U.S. special operations forces are working with selected African units to improve their capability to fight the terrorists and insurgents. These include the Danab in Somalia, the 11th and 51st Special Intervention Battalion in Niger, and the Kenya Special Forces and Rangers, and others.

Root Causes of Discontent

Some African nations are struggling with internal divisions in their country that are conducive to the growth of violent extremist organizations. Tribal grievances, disenfranchised minorities, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen, lack of government services in rural areas, ethnic divisions, poor governance, heavy-handed government reaction to VEOs and the general population, human rights abuses, and other factors are reasons why VEOs can recruit and maintain support within some members of African society.

SOCAFRICA has taken the position that the counterterrorism effort needs to be conducted in conjunction with programs that improve governance, development, and economic opportunity in these African nations at risk. The “three Ds”: defense, diplomacy, and development – are important components to defeating VEOs. [5]

Future U.S. CT Engagement in Africa?

Changing Focus and Resource Competition. The current national defense strategy mandates a shift in focus from the counterinsurgency and counterterrorism fight of the past two decades to a concentration on great power competition. This means resources and personnel applied to the threat posed by Russia and China in Europe, the Indo-Pacific, and elsewhere. AFRICOM and SOCAFRICA will be competing with other Combatant Commands for training teams (SOF, SFAB, etc.), ISR, medical evacuation assets, personnel recovery assets, and more. There is a finite amount of SOF, intelligence, and other resources – something has to give. In this case it appears that Africa may come up on the short end of the stick.

Downsizing the Africa Mission. The Department of Defense has recently indicated that it is planning to reduce the footprint for the newly established drone base in Niger. It plans to cut back back on SOF forces being deployed to Africa. Of note are plans to deploy elements of the newly formed Security Force Assistance Brigades (SFABs) to conduct training and advising missions. [6]

There is some Congressional resistance to this shift in resources away from Africa. Our European allies are also displeased with a loss of U.S. support for the counterterrorism fight in Africa. The U.S. commitment in Africa is currently ‘under review’ and we should see some policy shifts within the next few months that indicate which path the U.S. will take in Africa. Many national security observers that follow events in Africa recognize that in order to continue to contain or degrade VEOs the U.S. will need to provide long-term assistance and advising until partner forces can deal with jihadists threats on their own.

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Footnotes:

[1] In conjunction with the Pan Sahel Initiative detachments from the 10th Special Forces Group began training military forces in Africa.

[2] See Counterterrorism in Africa – Innovation, Lessons Learned and Staying Ahead of the Threat, address at UN CT Regional Conference, State.gov, July 2019.

[3] See “AFRICOM predicts mission training Somalia’s ‘Lightning Brigade’ will last until 2027”, Military Times, March 17, 2020.

[4] The intelligence community has assessed that Russian paramilitary forces fighting alongside the Libyan National Army (LNA) shot down a U.S. surveillance drone over Tripoli in the later part of 2019.

[5] From “A View from the CT Foxhole” below.

[6] There are no known numbers provided as to how many SFAB ‘teams’ will deploy; but it does make for a good soundbite. While a ’12-man’ SFAB team is specifically trained to train, advise, and assist (TAA) foreign conventional partner forces it is a poor choice to partner with foreign SOF partner forces.

References:

East Africa and North and West Africa Counterterrorism Operations, Lead Inspector General Report to the United States Congress, February 2020.
https://www.dodig.mil/Reports/Lead-Inspector-General-Reports/Article/2080495/lead-inspector-general-for-east-africa-and-north-and-west-africa-counterterrori/

“A View from the CT Foxhole: Brigadier General Dagvin R.M. Anderson, Commander, U.S. Special Operations Command Africa”, CTC Sentinel, Combating Terrorism Center at West Point, February 2020.
https://ctc.usma.edu/view-ct-foxhole-brigadier-general-dagvin-r-m-anderson-commander-u-s-special-operations-command-africa/

U.S. Counterterrorism Priorities and Challenges in Africa”, Congressional Research Service (CRS), December 16, 2019.
https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/TE/TE10044

“The Future Role of U.S. Counterterrorism Operations in Africa”, CTC Sentinel, Combating Terrorism Center at West Point, February 2014.
https://ctc.usma.edu/africa-special-issue/

Images: Top image derived from map found in CRS 2019 report cited above.

Soldiers of the 5th Special Forces Group hosted members from the Egyptian Special Operations Unit 999 during a joint training event at Fort Campbell, Kentucky.

The two-week training event took place in early February 2020 and was focused on a variety of special operations tactics and procedures while strengthening the relationship and interoperability between both units.

“We’ve been training together on a number of tasks from shooting and moving to counter tactics,” said the team leader with 5th SFG(A). “This has been a great opportunity for us to learn from each other. After this training, we will operate together more effectively.”

The training focused on a number of tasks from shooting and moving to counter tactics. Information and ideas were exchanged in the classroom, while firing and movement tactics were executed in Fort Campbell’s training area.

From mission planning, firing multiple weapons systems, countering improvised explosive devices and unmanned aircraft systems, both units familiarized themselves with each other’s procedures.

One of 5th Group’s missions is to train with partner forces.

“Anytime we can get out and work with our partner forces it benefits all of us on the team. We had the opportunity to do it in our own backyard this time and it was great for us. Specifically for some of our younger guys who may not have had the opportunity to work with our partner forces before, this has been great for them to learn from this experience.”

5th Special Forces Warrant Officer

A farewell dinner and ceremony was held at Fort Campbell’s Smokehaus Restaurant where the units celebrated their hard work and friendship.

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Photo: A 5th Special Forces Group (Airborne) Soldier assists an Egyptian Special Operations Soldier with Unit 999 with dialing in a scope on an M110 semi-automatic sniper rifle at a range on Fort Campbell, Ky., February 3, 2020. Identifying and engaging targets was one part of various tasks that both units trained on during a two-week training event. U.S. Army Photo by Sgt. Gregory T. Summers / 5th Special Forces Group (Airborne) Public Affairs) .

Story: The above article adapted from an article posted by Technical Information Support Company, 4th Battalion, 5th Special Forces Group, DVIDS, February 13, 2020.